Process for preparing purified S-BEL and R-BEL and compositions thereof

ABSTRACT

A process for resolution of racemic BEL into its individual enantiomeric constituents by chiral HPLC. A method for determining the role of specific isoforms of iPLA 2  in biologic processes.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/365,903 filed Mar. 19, 2002 and claims the benefit of priority to the PCT International Application Ser. No. PCT/US03/08834 filed Mar. 19, 2003 which is incorporated in its entirety by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to a process for the preparation of enantiomerically pure and optically enriched S-BEL from a composition comprising enantiomers S-BEL and R-BEL using HPLC chiral chromatography. More particularly, this invention relates to a process for preparing optically active purified S-BEL and a composition comprising purified S-BEL. This invention also relates to a process for preparing purified R-BEL and a composition comprising purified R-BEL. This invention also relates to a process for selective inhibition of iPLA₂ lipases. More particularly this invention relates to a process for selective inhibition of lipases which perform functions in cells.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Calcium-independent phospholipases A2 (iPLA₂s) constitute an important group of intracellular enzymes which function to hydrolyze esterified fatty acids from membrane phospholipids in response to agonist stimulation, changes in intracellular calcium ion homeostasis, and alterations in cellular energy requirements (for reviews, see 1-3). In early studies, we and others demonstrated that the majority of PLA₂ activity in most non-circulating mammalian cell types including smooth muscle cells (4), pancreatic jβ-cells (5,6), cardiomyocytes (7,8), and hippocampal neurons (9) was calcium-independent and inhibited by racemic (E)-6-(bromomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one (rac-BEL). Based upon activity assays, calcium requirements, loss of arachidonylated phospholipid mass, and inhibition of iPLA₂ by rac-BEL (R-BEL), a diverse array of cellular processes has been proposed to be regulated by iPLA₂s, including arachidonic acid (AA) release (10-15), cellular proliferation (16), assembly of VLDL (17), putinergic receptor-stimulated kallikrein secretion (18), apoptosis (19), endothelial cell PAF synthesis (20), and induction of iNOS and nitric oxide production (21).

Three distinct subclasses of iPLA₂ have been identified at the genetic level (with subsequent confirmation of iPLA₂ catalytic activity by recombinant technologies) and have been designated iPLA₂α, iPLA₂β, and iPLA₂γ, in order of their discovery (22-24). The iPLA₂s have been categorized based upon their strict conservation of nucleotide-binding (GXGXXG) and lipase (GXSTG) consensus sequences (FIG. 1). Two of the iPLA₂ subclasses, iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ, have been cloned from mammalian cDNA libraries while the ortholog of iPLA₂α (patatin), at the time of this writing (with 98.7% of tire human genome sequenced), has not been identified in mammals. Calcium-independent phospholipase A₂β contains eight ankyrin-repeat domains which are believed to facilitate intracellular sorting (23, 25, 26) and a CaM-binding domain near the C-terminus which binds calcium-activated CaM and regulates enzyme activity (27) (FIG. 1). The binding of CaM to iPLA₂β results in inhibition of iPLA₂β activity which is reversible through removal of Ca⁺² and subsequent dissociation of CaM from the C-terminus of iPLA₂β (27, 28). In this paradigm, iPLA₂β is regulated through alterations in cellular calcium ion homeostasis and becomes activated after dissociation from its complex with Ca⁺²/CaM when intracellular calcium stores are depleted by SERCA inhibitors, calcium-ionophores, or agonist stimulation (29, 30). In contrast, the recently identified iPLA₂γ does not bind CaM and its mechanisms of regulation are unknown at present.

Studies of iPLA₂ have utilized the mechanism-based suicide inhibitor rac-BEL as a pharmacologic tool to identify the type of intracellular phospholipase A₂ involved in many diverse cellular processes. Since rac-BEL inhibits both iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ at low microflora concentrations (24, 25, 31, 32), it is impossible to assign rac-BEL-mediated inhibition of AA release to iPLA₂β or iPLA₂γ activities. Accordingly, it became necessary to develop pharmacologic approaches which could discriminate between iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ to facilitate identification of their biologic roles. In addition, it has been reported in the Journal (33, 34) that high concentrations of BEL (25 μM) partially inhibit the magnesium-dependent cytozoic phosphatidate phosphohydrolase, PAP-1, which converts phosphatidic acid to diacylglycerol (DAG). In those investigations, it was proposed that PAP-1 inhibition by BEL would prevent activation of protein kinase C leading to attenuated AA release. However, “rescue” experiments in which PKC was exogenously activated by phorbol esters or diacyl glycerol analogs after BEL treatment were not reported by the authors to address their hypothesis (33, 34).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION

In an aspect, a process for preparing S-BEL and R-BEL comprises passing a racemic mixture comprising S-BEL and R-BEL through at least one chromatographic column packed with an optical resolution packing material to optically resolve S-BEL from the racemic mixture. In an aspect the packing material comprises a silica.

In an aspect a method of separating a racemic composition comprising R-BEL and S-BEL into purified R-BEL and S-BEL respectively comprises passing a racemic composition comprising R-BEL and S-BEL through an HPLC chiral separation column which comprises a stationary phase and eluting said R-BEL and said S-BEL from said column.

In an aspect a process for chromatographically resolving enantiomerically pure or optically enriched BEL from a mixture containing two enantiomers of BEL using chiral chromatography comprises a liquid mobile phase and a chiral stationary phase.

In an aspect the solid chiral stationary phase is attached to a silica or silica.

In an aspect, the inventors have shown the identification of iPLA₂β and not iPLA₂γ, as the Mediator of AVP-induced Arachidonic Acid Release in A-10 Smooth Muscle Cells by enantioselective Mechanism-Based Discrimination of intracellular lipases.

In an aspect, an isolated and purified S-BEL.

In an aspect, an isolated and purified R-BEL.

In an aspect, a purified composition comprising R-BEL.

In an aspect, a purified composition comprising S-BEL.

In an aspect, a method of identifying whether a lipase enzyme is metabolically active in a cellular environment comprises contacting said cellular environment with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL and determining the identity of the lipase based on the interaction of said lipase with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL.

In an aspect, a diagnostic method for determining the metabolic activity of a lipase in a cellular environment comprises contacting said cellular environment with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL and determining the identity of the lipase based on the interaction of said lipase with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL.

In an aspect, a diagnostic kit/method for determining the metabolic activity of a lipase in a cellular environment comprises providing a cellular environment comprising a lipase for which it is desired to determine the metabolic activity, contacting said cellular environment with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL and determining the identify and/or activity of the lipase based on the interaction of said lipase with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL.

In an aspect, a method of identifying whether a lipase enzyme is metabolically active in a cellular environment comprises contacting said cellular environment with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL and determining the identify of the lipase based on the interaction of said lipase with S-BEL.

In an aspect, a method of identifying whether a lipase enzyme is metabolically active in a cellular environment comprises contacting said cellular environment with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL and determining the identity of the lipase based on the interaction of said lipase with R-BEL.

In an aspect, a method of inactivating a lipase enzyme which is metabolically active in a cellular environment comprises contacting said cellular environment with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL and thereby rendering the lipase inactive.

In an aspect, a method of selectively inhibiting iPLA2γ in a composition comprises effectively contacting the same with an effective inhibiting amount of S-BEL.

In an aspect, a method for pharmacologically distinguishing iPLA2γ from iPLA2β comprises contacting a candidate iPLA2 with S-BEL and if the selectivity is high of S-BEL to the candidate iPLA₂, then determining that the iPLA2 is iPLA2γ. As used herein, the term “candidate” includes members of the iPLA2 family.

In an aspect, a method of differentially inhibiting iPLA2γ and iPLA2β comprises contacting the same with S-BEL, observing selectivity of S-BEL toward iPLA2γ or iPLAαβ and determining that said iPLA2β has been inhibited. In an aspect, iPLA₂β is selectively inhibited.

In an aspect, a method for identifying/determining whether iPLA₂β or iPLA₂γ is active in a metabolic pathway or chemical process believed to utilize iPLA₂ enzymes comprises contacting said pathway or process with at least one of R-BEL and S-BEL, determining if said R-BEL or S-BEL has an inhibiting effect and further determining whether this effect is on iPLA₂γ or iPLA₂β, identifying iPLA₂β or iPLA₂γ as active.

In an aspect a S-BEL inhibited iPLA₂γ is provided.

In another aspect an R-BEL inhibited iPLA₂γ is provided.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts the calcium-independent phospholipase A₂ (iPLA₂) gene family and sequence alignment of iPLA2 nucleotide and lipase consensus motifs.

FIG. 2 depicts separation of BEL enantiomers by chiral HPLC.

FIG. 3 depicts inhibition of α-chymotrypsin by racemic, (R)-and (S)-BEL.

FIG. 4 depicts selective inhibition of iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ by racemic, (R)-, and (S)-BEL.

FIG. 5 depicts inhibition of AVP-mediated arachidonic acid liberation in A-10 smooth muscle cells.

FIG. 6 depicts inability of racemic BEL to inhibit A-10 smooth muscle cell cytosolic (PAP-1) and membrane-bound (PAP-2) phosphatidate phosphohydrolase activities.

FIG. 7 depicts inability of phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate and 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol to reconstitute arachidonic acid liberation in A-10 cells treated with (S)-BEL.

FIG. 8 depicts translocation of PKCδ and PKCε in A-10 smooth muscle cells is unaffected by pre-treatment with (S)-BEL

FIG. 9 depicts racemic BEL, (R)-BEL, or (S)-BEL do not inhibit AVP-induced MAPK phosphorylation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In an aspect, the inventors employed rac-BEL to demonstrate a 1000 fold selectivity iPLA₂ vs. cPLA₂ and SPLA₂ family members (31, 32). In a further aspect, based upon the increasing appreciation of the utility of chiral pharmacologic agents in enhancing the specificity of inhibitors toward targeted biologic processes, we discovered that (R)- and (S)-BEL differentially inhibits iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ activities. Moreover, we discovered that development of chiral mechanism-based inhibitors provides an increased degree of discrimination between specific targeted enzyme systems and those of “non-specific inhibition. We exploited the resolution of racemic BEL into its individual enantiomeric constituents by chiral HPLC. We showed the selective inhibition of iPLA₂β by (S)-BEL and iPLA₂γ by (R)-BEL, and demonstrated that BEL-mediated inhibition of AA release in A-10 cells is likely mediated by iPLA₂β and not due to inhibition of iPLA_(2γ) or the effects of BEL on MAPK or PKC activation.

Agonist-stimulated release of arachidonic acid (AA) from cellular phospholipids in many cell types (e.g. myocytes, β-cells, and neurons) has been demonstrated to be primarily mediated by calcium-independent phospholipases A2 (iPLA₂s) which are inhibited by the mechanism-based inhibitor (E)-6-(bromomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one (BEL).

As used herein, the terms “preparative HPLC” and “HPLC” include a HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) process for the isolation and purification of compounds including compounds such as S-BEL and R-BEL. (see www.pharm.uky.edu/ASRG/HPLC/hplcmytry.html)

In an aspect, chemical separation is brought about by utilizing our discovery that S-BEL and R-BEL have different migration rates given a selected chiral chromatographic column and mobile phase employed therewith.

The separation of enantiomers such as S-BEL and R-BEL by means of liquid chromatography (LC) using chiral stationary phases is based on the reversible diasteromeric association between the chiral environment in the column and the enantiomers fed to the column.

In an aspect the column is a racemic resolveable and separable column.

Useful illustrative compositions to be separated and refined herein include racemic mixtures, including those comprising racemates. In an aspect a racemate is fed to a chiral chromatographic column producing one, two or multiple eluents respectively therefrom copying R-BEL and S-BEL respectively.

In an aspect a continuous chiral chromatrographic column is employed. In an aspect a batch or semi-continuous type chiral chromatrographic column is employed. In an aspect, the column is operably and suitably effectively configured to provide the desired separation, purification and elution.

As used herein, the term “purification” includes a process of separation or extracting a target or a designated compound(s) such an optical isomer(s) from other related compounds such as a related optical isomer, wherein each compound has a characteristic peak under chiral chromatographic conditions.

As used herein, the term “racemic” denotes the presence of equimolar or nearly equimolar amounts of dextrorotatory and levorotatory enantiomers of a compound.

In an aspect S-BEL comprises S—(E)-6-(bromomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one and R-BEL comprises R—(E)-6-(bromomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one.

In an aspect a racemic composition of S-BEL and R-BEL is separated, refined or made nonracemic by using a suitable chiral chromatograph.

In an aspect a suitable chiral chromatograph is one which is enantiomer separable capable, i.e., can separate enantiomers.

In an aspect a racemic composition of BEL entantiomers are resolved providing one or multiple eluents comprising S-BEL and R-BEL respectively. In an aspect a racemic BEL composition is fed to a HPLC chiral chromatograph column to provide a chiral chromatograph product eluent comprising chiral chromatographic produced R-BEL and S-BEL

In an aspect BEL entantiomers are resolved by HPLC utilizing a Chirex column of 3,5 dinitrobenzoyl-R-phenylglycine attached to a silica matrix as the stationary chiral phase.

In an aspect the column is calibrated.

In an aspect, the chiral column is equilibrated with hexane/dichloroethane/ethanol and optical enantiomers are eluted isocratically at a flow rate of 2 ml/min.

In an aspect isocratic elution is carried out in a process whereby the chromatographic procedure or separation in which the composition of the eluent is maintained constant or nearly constant.

In an aspect, elution of BEL compositions from the column is monitored by UV absorbance at 280 nm. Peaks corresponding to the R BEL and S BEL enantiomers were collected, dried under nitrogen and stored at −20° C.

In general the degree of separation or refinement is greater than about 60% (racemic) to about 90% and in the range from about 70% to about 85%.

Illustrative useful chiral HPLC columns include those which operate by immobilizing single enantiomers onto a stationary phase(s) in the column(s). Achieving capable and sufficient resolution depends to an extent on the effective formation of transient diastereoisomers on the surface of the column packing which in an aspect is the immobile phase. Generally the compound which forms the more stable diastereoisomer will be most or preferentially retained whereas the opposite enantiomer will form a less stable diastereoisomer will elute first. It is desired in this discovery to achieve a high degree of discrimination between enantiomers in passing through and effectively contacting the phases of the chiral HPLC chromatographic column to isolate and purified S-BEL and R-BEL. Useful illustrative operably configured chiral HPLC columns include those which operate effectively on the basis of chirality which is topical handedness or the property of nonidentity of an object with its mirror image.

In an aspect, the chromatography comprises a liquid mobile phase comprises 3,5-dinitrobenzoyl-(R)-phenylglycine attached to a silica matrix as a solid chiral stationary phase.

In an aspect, the eleutant comprises at least one of a purified and isolated S-BEL, a purified and isolated R-BEL, a composition comprising S-BEL and a composition comprising R-BEL.

As used herein, the terms “silica” and “silica based matrix” include any useful silicon oxide or silicon dioxide including silica gel, silica oxide, which is a colourless or white solid effectively used as the support or basis for chromatographic procedures. Generally in silica chromatographic processes, the silica is heated to above about 100C to drive off water. In an aspect silica material serves as a support.

Illustrative useful chiral stationary phases for use in chiral chromatography include those materials selected from the group consisting of Type I, II, III, IV and V CSP (chromatographic stationary phase) as classified by Irving Wainter (57).

Illustrative useful Type I CSP include those which differentiate enantiomers by formation of complexes based on attractive interactions which include hydrogen bonds, p-p interactions and dipole stacking.

Illustrative useful Type II CSPs include those which involve a combination of interactions and inclusion complexes to produce a separation, these are largely based on cellulose derivatives.

Illustrative useful Type III CSPs include those which rely on solute entering into chiral cavities to form inclusion complexes, such as the cyclodextrin type of column developed by Prof. D. W. Armstrong (58). Other useful CSPs include crown ethers and helical polymers such as polytriphenylmethyl methacrylate.

Illustrative useful Type IV CSP include those which separate by means of diastereomeric metal complexes which are known as Chiral ligand exchange chromatrograph (CLEC) and developed by Davankov (59, 60).

Illustrative useful chiral columns are also classified by chemical type. Illustrative useful chiral stationary phases include Brush type (Pirkle), cellulose, cyclcodextrin, macrocylic antibiotics, protein, ligand exchange and crown ethers.

These illustrative useful and other useful illustrative chiral columns include those listed in the Online Guide to Chiral HPLC by Mark Earl , see www.raell.demon.co.uk/chem/CHIbook/Chiral.htm.

A useful comprehensive guide to chiral HPLC applications is disclosed at www.chromtech.se/chiral.htm.

In an aspect this discovery is employed to provide an enhanced improved separation process for racemic compositions of S-BEL and R-BEL and provides a straightforward expeditious one step low cost method. This discovery is useful as a research tool to identify the role of lipases in biologic processes, and to probe active sites as by proteonomics. This discovery is also useful for proof of concept of specific isoformers used in lipase studies.

Recently, the family of mammalian iPLA₂s has been extended to include iPLA₂γ which previously could not be pharmacologically distinguished from iPLA₂β.

To determine if iPLA₂β or iPLA₂γ (or both) were the enzymes responsible for arginine vasopressin (AVP)-induced AA release from A-10 cells, it became necessary to selectively inhibit iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ in intact cells. Racemic BEL was separated into its enantiomeric constituents by chiral HPLC. Remarkably, (S)-BEL was approximately an order of magnitude more selective for iPLA₂β in comparison to iPLA₂γ. Conversely, (R)-BEL was approximately an order of magnitude more selective for iPLA₂γ than iPLA₂β. The AVP-induced liberation of AA from A-10 cells was selectively inhibited by (S)-BEL (IC₅₀ about 1 μM but not (R)-BEL, demonstrating that the overwhelming majority of AA release is due to iPLA₂β and not iPLA₂γ activity. Furthermore, pre-treatment of A-10 cells with (S)-BEL did not prevent AVP-induced MAPK phosphorylation or PKC translocation. Finally, two different cell-permeable protein kinase C activators (phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate and 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol) could not restore the ability of A-10 cells to release AA after exposure to (S)-BEL, thus supporting the downstream role of iPLA₂β in AVP-induced AA release.

This discovery has multiple utilities and illustratively is useful for proof of concept of specific isoformers used in lipase studies, for tagging iPLA₂ family members and labelling molecules. In an aspect this discovery is useful as one or more research tools, diagnostic method(s) and tool for selective inhibition of iPLA₂ family members such as targeted disease states, mode of action studies and investigative methods.

The following examples are described in detail in order to facilitate a clear understanding of the invention. It should be understood, however, that the detailed expositions of the application of the invention, are given by way of illustration only and are not to be construed as limiting the invention since various changes and modifications within the spirit of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description.

EXAMPLES

Experimental Procedures—Materials—BEL, phorbol myristate 13-acetate (PMA), and 1,2-Dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol (DOG) were obtained from Calbiochem. A Chirex HPLC column comprised of a stationary phase of (R)-phenylglycine linked through an amide linkage to 3,5-dinitrobenzoic acid was purchased from Phenomenex. Three-fold-crystallized chymotrypsin, N-succinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-7-amido-4-methylcoumarin, fatty acid free bovine serum albumin (low endotoxin), antibodies against PKCα, and most other reagents were obtained from Sigma. AVP was purchased from Bachem. HPLC-grade organic solvents and channeled LK6D Silica Gel 60 Å thin layer chromatography plates (Whatman) were obtained from Fisher Scientific. Enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) reagents and film were purchased from Amersham Pharmacia L-α-1-palmitoyl-2-[1-¹⁴C]-arachidonyl-phosphatidylcholine, L-α-1-palmitoyl-2-[1-¹⁴C]-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine, [5,6,8,9,11,12,14,15-³H(N)]-arachidonic acid, and L-α-dipalmitoyl [glycerol-¹⁴C(U)]-phosphatidic acid were purchased from NEN. A-10 cells derived from rat aortic smooth muscle were obtained from the ATCC and cultured as described previously (10). (R) and (S) enantiomers of (E)-6-(iodomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one (αNpI6) were received (Univ. of Illinois, Urbana). Anti-Active MAPK (pTEpY) and Anti ERK ½ antibodies were obtained from Promega. Antibodies against PKCε and PKCδ were received (St. Louis Univ., St. Louis). Antibodies against PKC₁ were obtained from BD Transduction Laboratories.

Recombinant iPLA₂ Enzymes—Recombinant iPLA₂β was expressed and purified from Sf9 cells as previously described (35). Recombinant full-length iPLA₂γ was expressed in Sf9 cells and the membrane fraction was washed and isolated as previously described (24).

Separation of BEL Enantiomers—BEL enantiomers were resolved by HPLC utilizing a Chirex column of 3,5-dinitrobenzoyl-(R)-phenylglycine attached to a silica matrix as a stationary chiral phase. The chiral column was equilibrated with hexane/dichloroethane/ethanol (150/15/1) and optical enantiomers were eluted isocratically at a flow rate of 2 ml/min. Elution of BEL compositions from the column was monitored by UV absorbance at 280 nm. Peaks corresponding to the (R)- and (S)-enantiomers were collected, dried under N₂, and stored at M-1-20° C. The concentration of BEL for each experiment was determined spectrophotometrically based on UV absorbance (ε₂₈₀=6130 cm⁻¹ M-1) in acetonitrile. This shows the separation at preparation of S-BEL and R-BEL respectively by our discovery.

Inhibition of α-Chymotrypsin by BEL—The kinetics of α-chymotrrpsin inactivation by (R)-, (S)-, and rac-BEL were performed similar to methods previously described (36). The concentration of α-chymotrypsin (MW=25,000) was determined using an A^(1%)=20 (1 cm pathlength) at 280 nm (37). Briefly, one milliliter of α-chymotrypsin (2 μM) was incubated with up to a 5-fold molar excess of (R)-,(S)-, or rac-BEL dissolved in acetonitrile or vehicle alone for 5 mm at 22° C. in 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2. A-10 μl aliquot of the reaction was diluted 1000-fold in 10 mL of 0.1 sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2 containing 100 mM hydrazine to deacylate transiently-inactive BEL-chymotrypsin complexes. Following incubation at 22° C. for 1 hr, chymotrypsin activity in each diluted sample was measured utilizing a SPECTRAmax GeminiXS microplate spectrofluorometer with N-succinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-7-amidomethylcoumarin (50 μM) as substrate for 1 mm at 25° C. Excitation and emission wavelengths were 380 nm and 460 nm, respectively.

Assay of iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ Inhibition by BEL—Purified recombinant iPLA₂β or Sf9 cell membranes containing recombinant iPLA₂γ were incubated with (R) BEL, (S) BEL, racemic BEL, or ethanol vehicle for 3 mm at 22° C. in the presence of 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.0) and 4 mM EGTA (for iPLA₂β) or 100 mM Tris-acetate (pH 8.0) and 4 mM EGTA (for iPLA₂γ). The concentration of BEL used for each test ranged from 0 to 16 μM. L-α-1-palmitoyl-2-[1¹⁴C]-arachidonyl-phosphatidylcholine (5 μM final concentration) or L-α-1-palmitoyl-2-[1-¹⁴C]-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine (5 μM final concentration) in ethanol was then added to each sample and incubated at 37° C. for 2 min. Reactions were terminated by extraction of radiolabeled products into butanol, and reactants and products were separated by thin layer chromatography using Whatman LK6D 60 Å Silica Gel plates with petroleum ether/ethyl ether/acetic acid (70:30:1) as the mobile phase. Regions corresponding to the migration of a fatty acid standard visualized by iodine staining were scraped into vials and radioactivity was quantified by scintillation spectrometry.

Quantification of [³H]-Arachidonic Acid Liberation from A-10 Phospholipids—Rat aortic smooth muscle A-10 cells, cultured in 60 mm dishes (2.5×10⁵ cells/dish), were radiolabeled with 0.5 μCi [³H]-arachidonic acid per dish as previously described (29). Cells were washed once with DMEM containing 0.25% fatty acid free bovine serum albumin followed by two washes with DMEM alone. Cells were then incubated with the indicated concentrations of (R)-, (S)-, rac-BEL, or ethanol vehicle (0.1% final concentration) in DMEM for 20 min. This media was removed and the cells were then incubated with DMEM containing 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum in the absence or presence of 1 μM AVP. In some tests, PMA (1 μM) or DOG (10 μM) was added to the medium containing AVP. After 5 mm, 1 ml of this medium was removed, lipids were extracted into 2 ml of chloroform/methanol/acetic acid (25:24:1 v/v) (38), and the remaining cells were scraped into 1 ml of deionized water prior to lipid extraction as described above. The chloroform layer was evaporated under nitrogen and the extracted lipids were separated by thin layer chromatography (petroleum ether/ethyl ether/glacial acetic acid 70:30:1). Regions containing fatty acids and phospholipids were scraped into vials and radioactivity was quantified by liquid scintillation spectrometry.

Measurement of Cytosolic and Membrane-bound Phosphatidate Phosphohydrolase Activities—A-10 cells were grown to confluency, washed twice in ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline, and harvested in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4 containing 0.25 M sucrose and 0.2 mM DTT). After brief sonication utilizing a Vibra-Cell VC4O sonicator (5×1 s pulses at 30% power), the lysed cell suspension was centrifuged at 100,000×g for 1 hr to separate cytosolic and membrane fractions. In some tests, A-10 cells were washed and pretreated with BEL or ethanol vehicle (as described above for tests examining [³H]-AA liberation) before isolation of cell homogenates. Each fraction (40 μL) was pre-incubated with BEL (up to 100 μM) or ethanol vehicle at 22° C. for 5 mm in the presence of 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.2 containing 10 mM β-mercaptoethanol, 2 mM MgCl₂, and 1 mM EGTA (90 μL final volume). Dipaimitoyl phosphatidic acid (100 μM final concentration containing 0.05 μCi L-α-dipalmitoyl [glycerol-¹⁴C(U)]-phosphatidic acid per reaction in the presence of 1 mM Triton X-100) was added to each reaction and incubated at 37° C. for 5-10 mm. Reactions were terminated with 900 μL of 5% acetic acid and extracted into chloroform by the method of Bligh and Dyer (38) prior to separating dipaliitoyl glycerol by TLC utilizing chloroform: methanol: water (65:35:2) as the mobile phase prior to quantification by scintillation spectrometry.

Determination of Phosphorylated MAPK—Confluent A-10 cells in 10 cm dishes were incubated overnight in the presence of DMEM containing 1% fetal bovine serum to reduce background phosphorylation of ERK1 and ERK2. Cells were washed twice with DMEM without serum and pre-incubated with 5 μM (R)-BEL, (S)-BEL, rac-BEL, or ethanol vehicle in DMEM without serum for 15 mm at 37° C. This media was then removed and the cells were incubated with 1 μM AVP for 5 mm, at 37° C. After washing once with ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), cells were scraped into RIPA buffer (PBS, pH 7.4 containing 1% Igepal CA-630, 0.5% sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 0.5 mM 4-(2-aminoethyl) benzenesulfonylfluoride, 10 μg/ml aprotinin, and 1 mM sodium orthovanadate), incubated on ice for 30 mm, and then centrifuged at 10,000×g for 10 mm. The protein concentrations of the sample supernatants were determined utilizing the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay (Pierce) with bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a standard. Samples were electrophoresed according to the method of Laemmli (39) and transferred to a PVDF membrane by electroelution in 10 mM CAPS (pH 11) for ECL Western analysis. After blocking with Tris-buffered saline containing 0.1% Tween-20 (TBS-T) and 5% non-fat dry milk for 2 hrs, primary rabbit polyclonal antibodies against phosphorylated (pTEpY) and dephosphorylated MAPK diluted 1:5000 in PBS containing 5% BSA were incubated with the blot for 1 hr. After washing with TBS-T, the blots were incubated with ice-cold PBS containing 0.25% glutaraldehyde for 15 mm as previously described (40), washed, and incubated with a protein A-peroxidase conjugate diluted (1:5000) in TBS-T containing 5% BSA for 1 hr. bimunoreactive bands were visualized by ECL as described by the manufacturer (Amersham Pharmacia).

Determination of PKC Translocation—Confluent A-10 cells in 10 cm dishes were washed twice with DMEM without serum, followed by incubation with either 5 μM (S)-BEL or ethanol vehicle in DMEM for 15 min at 37° C. This media was then removed and DMEM with or without 1 μM AVP was incubated with the cells for 5 min. After washing with ice-cold PBS, the cells were collected by scraping into 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4 containing 0.33 M sucrose, 5 mM EDTA, 0.5 mM 4(2-aminoethyl)benzenesulfonylfluoride, and 5 μg/ml leupeptin and were lysed by three cycles of flash freezing with liquid nitrogen and thawing. Each sample was then further homogenized utilizing a teflon homogenizer before isolating the low speed pellet (1,000×g), membrane (100,000×g pellet), and cytosol (100,000×g supernatant) fractions. The protein concentrations of the fractions were determined utilizing the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay (Pierce) with BSA as a standard. Samples were electrophoresed and subjected to ECL Western analysis utilizing rabbit polyclonal antibodies against PKCα and PKCε as described above for MAPK phosphorylation. For blots incubated with mouse monoclonal antibodies against PKCδ and PKCι., an anti-mouse IgG (Fab specific)-peroxidase conjugate was utilized in place of the protein A-peroxidase conjugate.

Results—Separation of BEL Enantiomers—Since BEL contains a chiral center at the C-2 position (FIG. 2), (R)-BEL and (S)-BEL might have different potencies and/or selectivities for iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ so that individual enantiomers of BEL could be exploited to identify the roles of iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ in agonist-stimulated AA release in intact cells. Accordingly, a chiral HPLC column was used to separate (R)-BEL and (S)-BEL from rac-BEL (FIG. 2). Separation of the BEL enantiomers under the conditions employed resulted in resolution of two major UV-absorbing peaks with an RT difference of approximately 2 mm. The first peak eluted at 18.8 mm (Peak A) while the second peak eluted at 20.5 mm (Peak B) (Relative retention time (R_(RT)) Peak A/Peak B=0.917) (FIG. 2). Integration of the areas of each peak were identical (within 1%), suggesting that the enantiomers of BEL had been separated. Proton NMR data demonstrated peaks with the anticipated chemical shifts and coupling constants as has previously been published (data not shown) (41). Moreover, electrospray ionization mass spectrometric analysis of the material in each peak revealed the presence of a lithiated doublet at 323.3 and 325.3 Daltons (consistent with the presence of a bromine atom) which was of equal intensity for each moiety. Re-injection of Peak A or Peak B onto the chiral column demonstrated that each purified moiety eluted at its previous retention time with negligible amounts of contaminating material demonstrating that, as expected, no equilibration had occurred. Finally, both peaks coeluted utilizing a non-chiral C18 HPLC column (data not shown).

Identification of the Absolute Chirality of the BEL Enantiomers—To determine the absolute chirality of the resolved BEL enantiomers, synthetic enantiomers of (F)-6-(iodomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one (αNpI6) of known chirality were chromatographed separately and together on the chiral stationary phase. Under these conditions, (S)-αNpI6 (R_(T)=19.5 min) eluted prior to (R)-αNpI6 (R_(T)=21.4 min) with approximately the same degree of separation (R_(RT)=0.911) as the BEL enantiomers. Chymotrypsin has previously been identified as a suitable target for aromatic haloenol lactones resulting in its mechanism-based inhibition as detailed by careful kinetic analyses by Katzenellenbogen (41-44). In prior studies, (R)-BEL was determined to be a more efficient inhibitor of chymotrypsin than (S)-BEL in comparison to its chiral counterpart (36). To further substantiate the absolute stereochemistry of the BEL enantiomers resolved by chiral HPLC and to confirm the ability of the resolved enantiomers to selectively inhibit chymotrypsin activity, increasing concentrations of (R)-BEL, (S)-BEL, or rac-BEL were incubated with chymotrypsin, and diluted in buffer as described in “Experimental Procedures”. Activity assays were performed using the fluorogenic chymotrypsin substrate N-succinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-7-amido-4-methylcoumarin as described in “Experimental Procedures”. Under the conditions employed, (R)-BEL stoichiometrically and irreversibly inhibited chymotrypsin while (S)-BEL was considerably less potent (FIG. 3). These results confirm that both peaks are distinct enantiomers of BEL and substantiate, by independent criteria, the assigned absolute stereochemistry of the peaks eluting from the chiral HPLC column.

Enantiomeric Selective inhibition of iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ—Previous experiments with iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ have established that iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ are inhibited by racemic BEL with an IC₅₀ range of 200 nM for iPLA₂β and about 3 μM for iPLA₂γ (24, 31). Accordingly, we next examined the ability of the resolved enantiomers of BEL to inhibit iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ. For these experiments, iPLA₂β or iPLA₂γ was pre-incubated with (R)-BEL, (S)-BEL, rac-BEL, or ethanol vehicle alone for 3 mm followed by measurement of remaining enzymatic activity utilizing a radiolabeled phospholipid substrate. Remarkably, (S)-BEL selectively inhibited iPLA₂β 10-fold more potently than (R)-BEL (FIG. 4A). In stark contrast, (R)-BEL selectively inhibited iPLA₂γ approximately 10-fold more potently than (5)-BEL (FIG. 4B). As anticipated, the inhibitory potency of racemic BEL was intermediate of that of (R)-BEL and (S)-BEL. Thus, (5)-BEL is a more potent inhibitor of iPLA₂β while (R)-BEL is a more potent inhibitor of iPLA₂γ.

Identification of iPLA2β and not iPLA2γ as the Mediator of AVP-induced AA Release in A-10 Cells—Upon stimulation with AVP, A-10 smooth muscle cells rapidly release a relatively large percentage (about 5%) of their esterified arachidonic acid (10). Prior studies have demonstrated that pretreatment of the cells with 2 to 5 μM BEL inhibits≈60 to 80%, respectively, of AVP-inducible arachidonic acid release (10, 29). Moreover, the absence of extracellular calcium ion (incubations performed in the presence of EGTA in the media) or the presence of intracellular calcium ion chelators (e.g. BAPTA) does not effect AVP-induced AA release in A-10 cells (29). Since combined incubations with EGTA and BAPTA completely ablated FURA-2 observable increases in intracellular calcium ions, these results further implicated the involvement of a calcium-independent phospholipase A₂ in this process. However, since both iPLA₂β and the newly identified iPLA₂γ are both inhibited by rac-BEL (and are calcium-independent), the identity of the iPLA₂ mediating AA release in AVP-stimulated A-10 cells was unknown. To address this issue, we exploited the selectivity of (S)-BEL and (R)-BEL, for inhibition of iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ, respectively, to determine the type of iPLA₂ catalyzing AVP-induced release of [³H]-armchidonic acid from A-10 cells. As previously demonstrated, A-10 cells stimulated with AVP results in a substantial increase in the amount of nonesterified [³H]-arachidonic acid relative to control cells incubated with vehicle alone (FIG. 5). This AVP-induced increase in non-esterified [³H]-arachidonic acid is significantly reduced in the presence of low concentrations of rac-BEL (1 and 5 μM) (FIG. 5). Importantly, (S)-BEL (1 μM) substantially inhibited AA release (50% inhibition) and 5 μM (S)-BEL completely attenuated AVP-induced AA release. In sharp contrast, (R)-BEL is virtually ineffective (about 10% inhibition at 5 μM BEL) in inhibiting AVP-induced AA release from A-10 cells under similar conditions (FIG. 5). Thus, iPLA₂β, and not iPLA₂γ, is the likely mediator of AA release in this system.

Confirmation of the Lack of Effects of BEL on Processes Typically Associated with cPLA2α Activation—Activation of cPLA2α in most systems depends on the concomitant activation of MAPK, PKC, and increases in intracellular [Ca²⁺] (45-47). In prior studies we demonstrated that BEL does not inhibit AVP-induced increases in [Ca²⁺]₁, and that ablation of changes in [Ca²⁺] by BAPTA does not attenuate AA release (29). Recently, Dennis and coworkers have suggested that cytosolic phosphatidate phosphohydrolase (PAP-1) in some cell types may be a target for BEL and that the resulting inhibition of PAP-1 would result in diminished levels of diacylglycerol produced from phosphatidic acid, thereby attenuating PKC activation precluding cPLA₂α activation and AA release (33, 34). To address this possibility, we first examined the effects of rac-BEL on A-10 cell PAP activities in cytosol and membrane fractions (FIG. 6A) as well as in intact cells (FIG. 6B). These tests consistently demonstrated the lack of any effect of BEL on either the cytosolic (PAP-1) or the membrane-bound (PAP-2) forms of A-10 cell phosphatidate phosphohydrolase at concentrations up to 200 μM BEL (FIG. 6A). Furthermore, homogenates from intact A-10 cells previously exposed to up to 100 μM racemic BEL did not inhibit total phosphatidate phosphohydrolase activity in comparison to ethanol-treated controls (FIG. 6B). Next, we examined whether activation of PKC by exogenous addition of either phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA) or 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol (DOG) could rescue AA release after BEL pretreatment. Neither PMA or DOG could restore the ability of (S)-BEL treated A-10 cells to release arachidonic acid, thereby demonstrating that BEL is likely inhibiting arachidonic acid release in a manner which is no longer responsive to PKC activation (i.e. irreversible covalent modification of iPLA₂) (FIG. 7). A-10 cells contain at least four PKC isoforms, PKC_(α), PKC_(δ), PKC_(ε), and PKC₁₂, by Western blot analysis (FIG. 8), however no bands corresponding to PKC_(βI), PKC_(βII), PKC_(γ), PKC_(η), or PKC_(ζ) could be visualized previously. Accordingly, we treated A-10 cells with AVP and determined if (S)-BEL could inhibit PKC translocation to the membrane fraction. Stimulation of A-10 cells with AVP causes translocation of PKC_(δ) and PKC_(ε) from the cytosol to the membrane fraction, but neither PKC_(α) nor PKC_(ι) undergo AVP-induced translocation in A-10 cells (FIG. 8). Pretreatment of A-10 cells with 5 μM (S)-BEL, which causes almost complete inhibition of AA release, does not effect the translocation of either PKC_(δ) or PKC_(ε) (FIG. 8). Finally, AVP-induced phosphorylation of ERK2 is not effected by the presence of 5 μM (R)-, (5)-, or rac-BEL (FIG. 9). Collectively, these results demonstrate that 1) neither PAP-1 nor PAP-2 is a target for BEL in A-10 smooth muscle cells; 2) BEL does not appreciably effect PKC_(δ) and PKC_(ε) translocation or MAPK phosphorylation in A-10 cells; and 3) iPLA₂β is likely responsible for the large majority of arachidonic acid release from A-10 cells.

Discussion—Genetic approaches have now demonstrated the presence of two types of iPLA₂ activities present in the human genome (iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ) which are both inhibited by rac-BEL (24, 31, 32). Accordingly, all prior tests demonstrating inhibition of arachidonic acid release by rac-BEL cannot discriminate between hydrolysis catalyzed by iPLA₂β or that mediated by iPLA₂α. Virtually nothing is known about the regulation of iPLA₂γ or its potential role in agonist-stimulated eicosanoid release. In this work, we: 1) resolve rac-BEL by chiral HPLC; 2) assign the absolute stereochemistry of the resolved enantiomers by two independent techniques; 3) demonstrate a 10-fold selectivity of (S)-BEL for inhibition of iPLA₂β and a 10-fold selectivity of (R)-BEL for inhibition of iPLA2γ; 4) demonstrate that (S)-BEL inhibits that vast majority of AVP-induced AA liberation in A-10 cells while (R)-BEL does not; 5) provide evidence that BEL-mediated inhibition of AA release in A-10 cells is not mediated through inhibition of either membrane-bound or cytosolic phosphatidate phosphohydrolases; and 6) demonstrate that treatment of A-10 cells with (S)-BEL does not attenuate PKC translocation or MAPK activation after AVP stimulation. Collectively, these results, in combination with work (see below) demonstrates that AVP-stimulated AA release in A-10 cells is likely mediated by iPLA₂β and not iPLA2γ, cPLA₂α, or chymotrypsin-like proteases.

The utilization of chiral pharmacologic agents instead of racemic mixtures has increasingly been appreciated to enhance the potency of inhibitors toward targeted processes and markedly reduce toxicity and “non-specific inhibition” mediated by interactions with non-targeted systems. Since enzymes possess multiple chiral centers, the interaction between a chiral inhibitor and one or more optically active centers at or near the enzyme active site results in diastereotopic interactions which possess different physical properties and spatial relationships for each diastereotopic pair. In the case of mechanism-based inhibitors such as BEL, these diastereotopic interactions are anticipated to: 1) alter binding; 2) modify the rate of formation of the acyl-enzyme intermediate; and 3) alter the covalent trapping of the halomethyl ketone in the acyl enzyme by nucleophiles at or near the active site. In this study, we have exploited diastereotopic interactions between individual enantiomers of BEL and the known mammalian iPLA₂s (i.e. iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ) to achieve a remarkable specificity for inhibition of iPLA₂β by (S)-BEL and iPLA₂γ by (R)-BEL, respectively. Moreover, we demonstrated that proteases with similar stereochemical relationships as chymotrypsin are more likely to be inhibited by (R)-BEL than (S)-BEL, thereby further increasing the utility of mechanism-based inhibition to gain insight into the types of phospholipases A2 mediating AA release in mammalian cells.

With any pharmacologic compound, unanticipated effects on non-targeted systems may occur with increasing likelihood at high concentrations of inhibitor. Mammalian cells have in excess of 30,000 genes which after splicing and post-translational modification give rise to well over 10⁵ and perhaps as many as 10⁶ different chemical moieties. Of course, it is impossible to test every compound with each of these chemical moieties in each different microenvironment in the cell in which pharmacologic agents might interact. Indeed, at high enough concentrations in aqueous systems, virtually any low molecular weight organic compound will interact with a diverse array of proteins due to hydrophobic effects alone. That is precisely why it is important to examine biologic effects elicited by pharmacologic agents at or near their effective inhibitory concentrations in intact cells as was determined in isolated purified systems. In the case of BEL, some investigators have employed 50-100 μM BEL which exceeds the effective inhibitory concentration of BEL for the known mammalian iPLA₂s by two orders of magnitude. Accordingly, these tests must be interpreted with caution given the IC₅₀ of rac-BEL for iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ is in the 0.5-3 μM range. Moreover, the mere exposure of cells to high concentrations of organic compounds (50-100 μM) is likely to perturb the fragile order of the membrane microenvironment and, in the case of investigating membrane-related phenomena, may have effects which are independent of interactions with targeted enzyme systems alone. Indeed, we have observed cell death employing 100 μM BEL which is almost certainly independent of the effects of BEL on targeted processes.

Dennis and co-workers have contended that high concentrations of rac-BEL (≈25 μM) effectively inhibit magnesium-dependent cytosolic phosphatidate phosphohydrolase (PAP-1) in mouse P388D1 macrophages (33) and human amnionic WISH cells (34). The authors argue that inhibition of PAP-1 would be expected to cause a deficiency in DAG thus blunting PKC activation and possibly activation of cPLA2a by MAPK. However, BEL has been subsequently shown not to affect PMA-induced translocation of PKC (or PKC catalytic activity) in P388D1 macrophages (15) or MAPK phosphorylation in WISH cells (34), rat neutrophils (48), and A-10 cells (this application). It should be mentioned that in their investigations, Balsinde et al. did not observe any effect of BEL on PAP-2 (33), the phosphatidate phosphohydrolase isoform which is believed to be involved in lipid signal transduction pathways (49-51). This absence of PAP-2 inhibition by BEL has since been observed in McA-RH7777 rat hepatoma cells (17), pancreatic islet cells (52), and A-10 smooth muscle cells (this application). Furthermore, cytosolic PAP-1 activity in McA-RH7777 cells is not significantly inhibited by 100 μM BEL (17). A second possible effect of inhibited PAP-catalyzed DAG production, as described by Balboa et al. (34), is that the phospholipid substrate will be in a sub-optimal environment since DAG has been demonstrated to alter membrane bilayers by creating more distance between phospholipid headgroups, thereby making the phospholipid ester linkages more susceptible to PLA₂-mediated hydrolysis. However, we have found that rac-BEL does not inhibit release of IP₂ or IP₃ in A-10 cells (10) and Akiba et al. (15) have found that BEL (up to 5 μM) does not significantly effect levels of diacylglycerol or phosphatidic acid formed in P388D1 macrophages upon stimulation with zymosan.

The identification of chiral specificity of individual enantiomers of BEL to inhibit the known mammalian iPLA₂s extends the utility of mechanism-based inhibitors in the study of agonist-mediated AA release. The tests described herein allow assignment of AVP-induced AA release in A-10 cells to iPLA₂β and not iPLA₂γ. The inhibition of AA release by (S)-BEL and not (R)-BEL excludes participation of chymotrypsin or chymotrypsin-like proteases in these processes. Finally, the utilization of chiral mechanism-based inhibitors reduces potential “non-specific” complications through comparisons of the effects of specific optical antipodes on the observed end points (i.e. AA release) with their in vitro potency in purified systems. Assignation of specific enzymes as effectors of AA release requires detailed concurrent consideration of biochemical, pharmacologic, and genetic perturbations on the observed process. In the case of AVP-induced AA release from A-10 cells, we have: 1) demonstrated that concentrations of (S)-BEL near the IC₅₀ for iPLA₂β dramatically attenuate AA release in intact A-10 cells while (R)-BEL does not (this application); 2) demonstrated that BEL-mediated inhibition of AA release occurs in the presence of normal increases in [Ca²⁺]1 (29) and cannot be rescued by exogenous activation of PKC by PIVIA or DOG (this application); 3) that AVP-mediated AA release in A-10 cells is not affected by removal of calcium ions from the external media or by effective buffering internal calcium concentration by BAPTA-AM (entry of extracellular calcium and increases in [Ca²⁺]1 are each thought to be necessary for cPLA₂α activation (53-55)); and 4) that many other enzymes thought to be necessary or associated with AA release are not inhibited by the concentrations of BEL employed. For example, enzymes which participate in signal transduction cascades which are known not to be inhibited by the concentrations of BEL employed include: phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (10), phospholipase D (17), protein kinase A (56), and channels which mediate Ca²⁺ release from intracellular stores (10). Of course, as with any other process, we can not rule out the involvement of as yet undiscovered phospholipases or activation cascades. However, we state that in the presence of PKC activation, MAPK activation, and increases in [Ca²⁺], (processes typically deemed necessary for cPLA2a-mediated AA release), arachidonic acid release is still inhibited by (S)-BEL with a dose response profile and chiral selectivity which closely corresponds to iPLA₂β.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1—shows the calcium-independent phospholipase A₂ (iPLA₂) gene family and sequence alignment of iPLA₂ nucleotide and lipase consensus motifs. Members of the iPLA₂ gene family (α, β, and γ) are aligned according to their nucleotide-binding motifs (boxed diagonal bars) and, lipase consensus sites (filled bars). Calcium-independent phospholipase A₂β contains eight ankyrin repeat domains (gray bars) and a calmodulin-binding domain (CaM) near the C-terminus (boxed horizontal bars).

FIG. 2 shows separation of BEL enantiomers by chiral HPLC. A Chirex 3,5-dinitrobenzoyl-(R)-phenylglycine chiral HPLC column (4.6 mm×25 cm) was equilibrated with hexane/dichloroethane/ethanol (150/115/1) at a flow rate of 2 ml/min. Racemic BEL (10 nmol) was injected onto the column as feed and the UV absorbance (280 nm) was recorded for the time indicated. The elution time for the (S) enantiomer (Peak A) was 18.8 mm and that for the (R) enantiomer (Peak B) was 20.5 mm. The chemical structures of (R)- and (S)-BEL are as indicated above the chromatogram.

FIG. 3 shows inhibition of α-chymotrypsin by racemic, (R)-, and (S)-BEL. Chymotrypsin (2 μM) in 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2 was incubated with the indicated concentrations of racemic, (R)-, or (S)-BEL for 5 mm. This solution was then diluted 1000-fold in 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2 containing 100 mM hydrazine and incubated for 1 hr at 22° C. Chymotrypsin proteolytic activity was measured spectrofluorometrically using N-succinyl-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-7-amido-4-methylcoumarin (50 μM) as substrate.

FIG. 4 shows selective inhibition of iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ by racemic, (R)-, and (S)-BEL. Panel A—Purified recombinant iPLA₂β (1 μg/ml) in 100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.3 containing 1 mM EGTA was preincubated at 22° C. for 3 mm in the presence of the indicated concentrations of (R)-, (S)-, or rac-BEL or ethanol vehicle alone (1% final concentration). Radiolabeled substrate (L-α-1-palmitoyl-2-[1-¹⁴C]-arachidonyl-phosphatidylcholine, 5 μM final concentration) was then added to each reaction and incubated at 37° C. for 2 min. Reactions were terminated by extraction of remaining substrate and products into butanol, separation by TLC, and quantification of released radiolabeled fatty acid by scintillation spectrometry as described in Experimental Procedures. Results are representative of four separate tests. Panel B—Washed Sf9 cell membranes containing recombinant human iPLA₂γ were preincubated for 3 min with the indicated concentrations of (R)-, (S)-, or racemic BEL or ethanol vehicle alone (1% final concentration) in 100 mM Tris-acetate, pH 8.0 containing 1 mM EGTA at 22° C. Radiolabeled substrate (L-α-1-palmitoyl-2-[1-¹⁴C]-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine, 5 μM final concentration) was then added to each reaction and incubated at 37° C. for 2 min. Reactions were terminated by extraction of remaining substrate and products into butanol, separation by TLC, and quantification of released radiolabeled fatty acid by scintillation spectrometry as described in “Experimental Procedures”. Results are representative of four separate tests.

FIG. 5 shows inhibition of AVP-mediated arachidonic acid liberation in A-10 smooth muscle cells by racemic, (R)-, and (S)-BEL. A-10 cells (2.5×10⁵ cells/dish) were radiolabeled with [³H]-arachidonic acid (0.5 μCi/dish) for 20 hrs. After washing to remove unincorporated [³H]-arachidonic acid, cells were then incubated with either 1 μM or 5 μM (R)-BEL, (S)-BEL, rac-BEL, or ethanol vehicle (0.1%) in DMEM for 20 mm. This media was removed and the cells were then incubated with 3 ml of DMEM containing 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum with or without 1 μM AVP. After 5 min, 1 ml of this medium was removed and lipids were extracted into 2 ml of chloroform/methanol/acetic acid (25:24:1). The remaining cells were scraped into 1 ml of deionized water and total lipids were extracted as described above. The chloroform layer was evaporated under nitrogen and the extracted lipids were separated by TLC. Regions containing fatty acids and phospholipids were scraped into vials and radioactivity was quantified by liquid scintillation spectrometry. Results are representative of four separate tests.

FIG. 6 shows the inability of racemic BEL to inhibit A-10 smooth muscle cell cytosolic (PAP-1) and membrane-bound (PAP-2) phosphatidate phosphohydrolase activities. A-10 cells plated on 100 mm dishes were washed 2× in ice-cold PBS and harvested in lysis buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4 containing 0.25 M sucrose and 0.2 mM DTT). After briefly sonicating, cytosolic and membrane fractions were separated by ultracentrifigation before measuring phosphatidate phosphohydrolase activity. In panel A, cytosolic or membrane fractions were pre-incubated with rac-BEL (up to 200 μM) or ethanol vehicle at 22° C. for 5 min in the presence of 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.2 containing 10 mM β-mercaptoethanol, 2 mM MgCl₂, and 1 mM EGTA. Dipalmitoyl phosphatidic acid (100 μM final concentration containing 0.05 μCi L-α-dipalmitoyl [glycerol-¹⁴C(U)]-phosphatidic acid per reaction in the presence of 1 mM Triton X-100) was added to each reaction which was then transferred to a 37° C. water bath for 5 (membrane fraction) or 10 (cytosolic fraction) mm. Reaction products were terminated with the addition of 5% acetic acid, extracted into chloroform, dried under nitrogen, and resolved by TLC as described in “Experimental Procedures”. Results are representative of three separate tests. In panel B, intact A-10 cells were washed and pretreated with BEL or ethanol vehicle (as described in FIG. 5) before isolation of the cell homogenate and quantification of phosphatidate phosphohydrolase activity as described above. Results are representative of three separate tests.

FIG. 7 shows the inability of phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate and 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol to reconstitute arachidonic acid liberation in A-10 cells treated with (S)-BEL. A-10 cells were radiolabeled with [³H]-arachidonic acid, washed, and pre-incubated with 5 μM (S)-BEL or ethanol vehicle alone for 15 min as described in FIG. 5. DMEM media containing 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum with or without 1 μM AVP was then added to the cells. PMA (1 μM) or DOG (10 μM) were included in this media as indicated in the figure. After 5 min at 37° C., [³H]-arachidonic acid released into the media and remaining within the cells (free and incorporated into phospholipids) was extracted into chloroform, separated by TLC, and quantified by liquid scintillation spectrometry as described in “Experimental Procedures”. Results are representative of three separate tests.

FIG. 8 shows that translocation of PKCδ and PKCε in A-10 smooth muscle cells is unaffected by pre-treatment with (S)-BEL. A-10 cells were incubated in the presence of 5 μM (S)-BEL or ethanol vehicle in DMEM without serum for 15 min at 37° C., followed by removal of the medium, and incubation in the presence or absence of 1 μM AVP in DMEM for 5 min as indicated in the figure. After lysis of the cells, low speed pellets (LSP) obtained by centrifugation at 1,000×g, membrane (Memb), and cytosolic (Cyto) fractions (obtained by centrifugation at 100,000×g) were electrophoresed by SDS-PAGE (20 μg of protein per lane) and immunoreactive bands corresponding to the indicated PKC isoforms (α, δ, ε, and ι) were visualized by ECL Western analysis as described in “Experimental Procedures”.

FIG. 9 shows that racemic BEL, (R)-BEL, or (S)-BEL do not inhibit AVP-induced MAPK phosphorylation. A-10 cells were incubated in the presence of ethanol vehicle or 5 μM rac-BEL, (R)-BEL, or (S)-BEL in DMEM for 15 min at 37° C. After removal of this media, the cells were incubated for 5 min in the presence or absence of 1 μM AVP as indicated in the figure, washed with ice-cold PBS, and then lysed with RIPA buffer. Extracts from the cells were separated by SDS-PAGE (20 μg protein per lane), transferred to a PVDF membrane, and analyzed by ECL immunoblotting for phosphorylated MAPK as described in “Experimental Procedures”.

ABBREVIATIONS

AVP—Arginine vasopressin

BEL is (E)-6-(bromomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one

Rac-BEL—Racemic (E)-6-(bromomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one

(R)-BEL—(R)(E)-6-(bromomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one

(S)-BEL—(S)(E)-6-(bromomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one

αNpI6—(E)-6-(iodomethylene)-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-tetrahydropyran-2-one

EGTA—Ethylene glycol-bis(β-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid

cPLA₂—Cytosolic phospholipase A₂

iPLA₂—Calcium-independent phospholipase A₂

iPLA₂β—Calcium-independent phospholipase A₂β

iPLA₂γ—Calcium-independent phospholipase A₂γ

PAP—Phosphatidate phosphohydrolase

PMA—Phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate

DOG—1,2-Dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol

R_(RT)—Relative retention time

Rac-BEL=racemic BEL

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While the invention has been described with respect to various specific examples and embodiments thereof, it is understood that the invention is not limited thereto and many alternatives, modifications, and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art in light of the foregoing description. Accordingly, it is intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications, and variations as fall within the spirit and broad scope of the invention. 

1. A method of identifying whether a lipase enzyme is metabolically active within a cellular environment, said method comprising contacting said cellular environment with at least one of S-isomer bromoenal lactone (S-BEL) and R-isomer bromoenal lactone (R-BEL) and determining the identity of the lipase enzyme based on the interaction of the lipase enzyme with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL, wherein the S-BEL selectively inhibits β phospholipase and the R-BEL selectively γ phospholipase.
 2. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein the lipase is contacted with S-BEL.
 3. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein the lipase is contacted with R-BEL.
 4. A diagnostic kit for determining the metabolic activity of a lipase within a cellular environment, wherein said kit comprises a lipase for which it is desired to determine the metabolic activity, contacting said cellular environment with at least one of S-isomer bromoenal lactone (S-BEL) and R-isomer bromoenal lactone (R-BEL) and determining at least one of an identify and an activity of the lipase based on the interaction of said lipase with at least one of S-BEL and R-BEL, wherein the S-BEL selectively inhibits β phospholipase and the R-BEL selectively inhibits γ phospholipase.
 5. A method of differentially inhibiting at least one of iPLA₂β and iPLA₂γ by contacting the same with S-isomer bromoenal lactone (S-BEL), observing a selectivity of S-BEL toward one of iPLA₂β or iPLA₂γ and determining that one of iPLA₂β or iPLA₂γ has been inhibited.
 6. A method for pharmacologically distinguishing iPLA₂β from iPLA₂γ, said method comprising contacting a candidate iPLA₂ with S-BEL and if the S-isomer bromoenal lactone (S-BEL) is selective to the candidate iPLA₂, then determining that the iPLA₂ is iPLA₂β. 